Internal Combustion Engines
The exhaust valve in a four stroke cycle petrol engine

Opens at 50° before bottom dead center and closes at 15° after top dead center
Opens at 50° after bottom dead center and closes at 15° before top dead center
Opens at bottom dead center and closes at top dead center
May open and close anywhere

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Internal Combustion Engines
If V₁ is the jet velocity and V₀ is the vehicle velocity, then the propulsive efficiency of a rocket is given by

[2(V₀/V₁)]/ [1 + (V₀/V₁)²]
V₁/(V₀ + V₁)
(V₀/V₁)/ [1 + (V₀/V₁)²]
V₀/(V₀ + V₁)

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Internal Combustion Engines
In a typical medium speed 4-stroke cycle diesel engine the inlet valve

Opens at top dead center and closes at bottom dead center
Opens at 20° before top dead center and closes at 35° after the bottom dead center
Opens at 10° after top dead center and closes 20° before the bottom dead center
May open or close anywhere

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