Process Equipment and Plant Design
In a double pipe concentric heat exchanger, the equivalent diameter of annulus for heat transfer would be (where, D₁ and D₂ are I.D. of inner and outer pipes)

D₂ - D₁
(D₂² - D₁²)/D₁²
(D₂² - D₁²)/D₂²
None of these

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
Liquid gradient over a tray can be minimised by

Using split flow, radial flow or cascade flow for column diameter large than 4 ft
Providing a higher skirt clearance or a higher weir
All of these
Decreasing the number of rows of caps through which the liquid flows or by decreasing the velocity of liquid flow past the caps or by reducing the distance along the tray through which the liquid must

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