Machine Design
The stiffness of a closely coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load W is equal to (where G = Modulus of rigidity, and n = Number of active coils)

Gd3/ 8D3n
Gd⁴/ 8D3n
Gd⁴/ 8D²n
Gd⁴/ 4D3n

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Machine Design
Coaxing is the procedure of increasing

Metal resistance to corrosion by coating
Metal strength by cycling
Fatigue limit by over-stressing the metal by successively increasing loadings
Metal hardness by surface treatment

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