Process Equipment and Plant Design
A perforated plate has holes of diameter dh arranged in a pitch ph. Each hole has a tube of I.D. dt passing through it. The ligament efficiency is given by

(ph - dh . dt/2)/ph
(ph - dh)/ph
(ph - dt)/ph
(ph - dh)/dh

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Process Equipment and Plant Design
A forced circulation long tube vertical evaporator as compared to the natural circulation evaporator

Is economical in operation
Employs high velocity, high heat transfer rate and less heating surface requirement
Employs a centrifugal pump placed between external downtake from vapor drum and inlet to tube bundle
Both B & C

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